The History of Hell

The English word 'hell' translates four different words in the original biblical texts. This page traces the documented history of how these distinct concepts were unified into a single doctrine, drawing on biblical scholarship, historical theology, and the psychology of religion. All claims are cited.

FOUR WORDS, ONE TRANSLATION

Biblical scholars have noted that the English word 'hell' is used to translate four distinct terms in the original texts, each with a different meaning and cultural context.[5]

Sheol[1]

HEBREW

The grave / realm of the dead

Used throughout the Hebrew Bible. Refers to the state of death, with no clear moral dimension in most occurrences.

Hades[2]

GREEK

Realm of the dead

The Greek equivalent of Sheol. Used in the New Testament to describe the state of death. Distinct from a place of punishment.

Gehenna[3]

GREEK/ARAMAIC

Valley of Hinnom, outside Jerusalem

Used twelve times by Jesus. A real location associated with burning refuse and historical child sacrifice.

Tartarus[4]

GREEK

Prison of the Titans in Greek mythology

Used once in 2 Peter 2:4. A term from Greek mythology, not Hebrew theology.

The decision to translate all four terms as 'hell' in English was a theological and linguistic choice made by translators working in particular historical contexts. Scholars debate whether this translation accurately represents the range of meanings in the original texts.

Gehenna: What the Term Meant in Context[3]

Jesus used the word Gehenna twelve times in the Gospels. Gehenna was a real, physical location: the Valley of Hinnom, just outside Jerusalem's southern wall. It had historical associations with child sacrifice under the kings of Judah (2 Kings 23:10; Jeremiah 7:31), and by the first century was associated with burning refuse. Scholars debate the precise meaning of Jesus's use of Gehenna: some read it as a metaphor for consequences in this life; others as a reference to post-mortem judgement; others as an apocalyptic image. What is not disputed is that the term had a specific local referent for Jesus's first-century Jewish audience.

Augustine and the Development of Eternal Torment[6]

The doctrine of eternal conscious torment was developed in its classical Western form by Augustine of Hippo (354 to 430 AD), particularly in his City of God (c. 426 AD). Augustine argued that God's justice required eternal punishment for unrepentant sin, and that divine mercy did not extend beyond death to those outside the Church. His position became dominant in Western Christianity, though it was not the only view in the early church.

Origen of Alexandria (~185 to 254 AD), Gregory of Nyssa (~335 to 395 AD), and Clement of Alexandria (~150 to 215 AD) all argued for forms of universal restoration (apokatastasis): the eventual reconciliation of all souls to God.[7] Origen's position was condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople in 553 AD, but the debate about the scope of divine mercy has continued throughout Christian history and remains active in contemporary theology.

Dante's Inferno and Popular Imagination[8]

A significant portion of what people in Western culture associate with hell comes from Dante Alighieri's Inferno (c. 1320 AD). Dante was a Florentine poet writing a literary and political work; the Divina Commedia is widely studied as one of the great works of medieval literature. It introduced vivid imagery including nine circles of hell, specific torments for specific sins, and named individuals placed in various circles. Scholars of religion and literature have noted that this imagery became deeply embedded in popular Christian imagination, to the point where many people cannot easily distinguish between biblical text and Dante's literary invention.

The Psychology of Fear-Based Teaching[9]

Researchers in the psychology of religion have studied the effects of fear-based religious teaching on mental health and wellbeing. Studies have found associations between certain forms of religious fear (fear of divine punishment, fear of hell) and anxiety, depression, and reduced wellbeing in some populations. This research does not address the theological question of whether hell exists; it addresses the psychological effects of how the concept is communicated and experienced.

Sources & References

[1]Sheol (Hebrew) refers to the grave or the place of the dead, without moral judgment attached.
[2]Hades (Greek) similarly refers to the underworld or the realm of the dead in Greek thought.
[3]Gehenna (Greek transliteration of the Hebrew Gehinnom) originally referred to a valley outside Jerusalem where refuse was burned. Jesus used it as a metaphor for judgment.
[4]Tartarus (Greek) is used only once in the New Testament (2 Peter 2:4) and refers to a place of punishment for rebellious spirits.
[5]Bart D. Ehrman, The New Testament: A Historical Introduction (2012), discusses the four terms translated as 'hell'.
[6]Augustine, City of God (~426 AD). Augustine's doctrine of eternal conscious torment became dominant in Western Christianity.
[7]Dante Alighieri, The Divine Comedy, Inferno (~1320 AD). Dante's vivid imagery significantly influenced popular Christian conceptions of hell.

FROM THE RED LETTERS

Whatever conclusions one draws about the development of hell doctrine, the Gospels record Jesus speaking primarily in terms of life, restoration, and love:

'For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him.'

John 3:17

'Come to me, all you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest.'

Matthew 11:28