Sources and References

On the use of the term 'Christian' in Acts 11:26, see Keener, C.S. (1999), A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Eerdmans. The term was originally a label applied by outsiders.

On the early Jesus movement as a Jewish sect, see Sanders, E.P. (1985), Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press. Sanders argues that Jesus did not intend to found a new religion.

On the role of women in the early church, see Johnson, E.A. (1983), She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological Discourse, Crossroad. Early Christian communities included women in leadership roles that were later restricted.

On the shared meal practice (agape) in early Christian communities, see Bradshaw, P.F. (2002), The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship, Oxford University Press.

On the structure of early house churches, see Meeks, W.A. (1983), The First Urban Christians: The Social World of the Apostle Paul, Yale University Press.

On the absence of clergy in early Christian communities, see Torjesen, K.J. (1993), When Women Were Priests: Women's Leadership in the Early Church and the Scandal of Subordination in the Rise of Christianity, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the persecution of early Christians, see Brent, A. (1995), A Political History of Early Christianity, Routledge. Persecution was sporadic and localized rather than empire-wide until the third century.

On the role of Paul in shaping early Christian theology, see Crossan, J.D. and Reed, J.L. (2004), In Search of Paul: How Jesus's Apostle Opposed Rome's Empire and Lost His Message, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the development of Christian hierarchy, see Brown, P. (1988), The Rise of Western Christendom, Blackwell. The shift from egalitarian to hierarchical structures occurred gradually over centuries.

On the role of bishops in early church governance, see Ignatius of Antioch, Letters (early 2nd century). Ignatius's letters show the emergence of monarchical episcopacy.

On the concept of apostolic succession, see Tertullian, On Prescription Against Heretics (c. 200 AD). This doctrine developed to legitimize church authority.

On the role of deacons in early Christian communities, see Bradshaw, P.F. (1992), Ordination Rites of the Ancient Churches of East and West, Pueblo Publishing.

On the development of Christian theology in the second century, see Ehrman, B.D. (2003), Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew, Oxford University Press.

On the differences between Jesus's teachings and Paul's theology, see Crossan, J.D. (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the concept of justification by faith in Paul's letters, see Fitzmyer, J.A. (1993), Romans, Anchor Bible. Paul's emphasis on faith contrasts with Jesus's focus on action and compassion.

On the role of the law in Jesus's teaching versus Paul's theology, see Sanders, E.P. (1985), Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press.

On Paul's conversion experience, see Acts 9:1-19 and Galatians 1:11-17. Paul claims a direct revelation from Jesus, which shaped his theology.

On the development of Christology in Paul's letters, see Hurtado, L.W. (2003), Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity, Eerdmans.

On the role of the cross in Paul's theology, see Stendahl, K. (1976), Paul Among Jews and Gentiles, Fortress Press. Paul emphasizes the cross as redemptive, whereas Jesus focused on the kingdom of God.

On the concept of grace in Paul's theology, see Dunn, J.D.G. (1998), The Theology of Paul the Apostle, Eerdmans.

On the role of women in Paul's churches, see Johnson, E.A. (1983), She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological Discourse, Crossroad. Some of Paul's statements about women appear to contradict his earlier inclusive practice.

On Constantine's conversion and its political implications, see Eusebius of Caesarea, Life of Constantine (4th century). Eusebius's account is the primary source but is considered hagiographic.

On the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), see Athanasius, Defence of the Nicene Definition. The council established the Nicene Creed and standardized Christian doctrine.

On the political motivations behind Constantine's religious policy, see MacMullen, R. (1997), Christianity and the Decline of Rome, Yale University Press.

On the Edict of Milan (313 AD), see Eusebius of Caesarea, Life of Constantine, Book 1. This edict granted religious tolerance to Christians and other religions.

On the role of bishops in Constantine's church, see Brown, P. (1988), The Rise of Western Christendom, Blackwell. Constantine elevated bishops to positions of political authority.

On the development of Christian orthodoxy after Nicaea, see Metzger, B.M. (1997), The Canon of the New Testament, Oxford University Press.

On the suppression of alternative Christian groups after Constantine, see Ehrman, B.D. (2003), Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew, Oxford University Press.

On the Hebrew word Gehenna and its use in the New Testament, see Jeremias, J. (1964), Gehenna, in Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, Eerdmans. See also 2 Kings 23:10 and Jeremiah 7:31 for the historical Valley of Hinnom.

On the Norse etymology of hell, see the Oxford English Dictionary entry for hell. The Old English hel derives from Proto-Germanic *halja, meaning the underworld.

Augustine, City of God, Book XXI, c. 426 AD. For a scholarly assessment, see Wetzel, J. (2012), Augustine, Continuum.

On Origen's doctrine of apokatastasis, see Ramelli, I. (2013), The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis, Brill. Origen's views were condemned at the Second Council of Constantinople, 553 AD.

Alighieri, D. (c. 1320), Inferno. For its influence on Christian imagery, see Turner, A. (2004), The History of Hell, Harcourt Brace.

On the doctrine of Original Sin and Augustine's development of it, see Pagels, E. (1988), Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, Random House.

On the Greek word hamartia, see Liddell, H.G. and Scott, R. (1940), A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford University Press. The term appears in archery contexts meaning to miss the mark.

On the psychology of guilt and shame in religious contexts, see Tangney, J.P. and Dearing, R.L. (2002), Shame and Guilt, Guilford Press.

On the use of fear in religious control, see Hassan, S. (1988), Combating Cult Mind Control, Park Street Press.

On the psychology of obedience and authority, see Milgram, S. (1974), Obedience to Authority, Harper and Row.

On cognitive dissonance in religious belief systems, see Festinger, L. (1957), A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance, Stanford University Press.

On the mechanisms of social control in high-control groups, see Lalich, J. (2004), Bounded Choice: True Believers and Charismatic Cults, University of California Press.

On the development of hell doctrine in Christian theology, see Turner, A. (2004), The History of Hell, Harcourt Brace.

On Augustine's influence on Christian eschatology, see Wetzel, J. (2012), Augustine, Continuum.

On Dante's Inferno and its cultural impact, see Barolini, T. (1992), The Undivine Comedy: Detheologizing Dante, Princeton University Press.

On the psychological effects of hell doctrine, see Exline, J.J. (2002), Stumbling blocks on the religious road, Psychological Inquiry, 13(3).

On the use of hell doctrine in medieval preaching, see Swanson, R.N. (1999), Religion and Devotion in Europe, c. 1215-c. 1515, Cambridge University Press.

On the concept of eternal punishment in early Christian thought, see Ramelli, I. (2013), The Christian Doctrine of Apokatastasis, Brill.

On the role of fear in religious institutions, see Hassan, S. (1988), Combating Cult Mind Control, Park Street Press.

On the relationship between hell doctrine and social control, see Foucault, M. (1977), Discipline and Punish, Pantheon Books.

On the psychological effects of fear-based religious teaching, see Exline, J.J. (2002), Stumbling blocks on the religious road, Psychological Inquiry, 13(3). See also Pargament, K.I. (1997), The Psychology of Religion and Coping, Guilford Press.

On the Greek word ouranos and its use in the New Testament, see Liddell, H.G. and Scott, R. (1940), A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford University Press. For the Kingdom of Heaven in Matthew, see Davies, W.D. and Allison, D.C. (1988), A Critical and Exegetical Commentary on the Gospel According to Saint Matthew, T&T Clark.

On the Greek word eggiken in Matthew 4:17, see Dodd, C.H. (1935), The Parables of the Kingdom, Nisbet. Dodd's realised eschatology argues that the Kingdom was present in Jesus's ministry; Jeremias, J. (1963), The Parables of Jesus, SCM Press, argues for inaugurated eschatology.

On the use of heaven-focused preaching in the context of American slavery, see Raboteau, A.J. (1978), Slave Religion: The Invisible Institution in the Antebellum South, Oxford University Press.

On the Prosperity Gospel and its theological claims, see Bowler, K. (2013), Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel, Oxford University Press.

On the Kingdom parables in Matthew 13, see Snodgrass, K. (2008), Stories with Intent: A Comprehensive Guide to the Parables of Jesus, Eerdmans.

On the Greek word hamartia and its archery usage, see Liddell, H.G. and Scott, R. (1940), A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford University Press. For its theological range in the New Testament, see Dunn, J.D.G. (1998), The Theology of Paul the Apostle, Eerdmans.

On the doctrine of Original Sin and Augustine's development of it, see Pagels, E. (1988), Adam, Eve, and the Serpent, Random House. For the Latin translation debate, see Fitzmyer, J.A. (1993), Romans, Anchor Bible.

On Romans 5:12 and the translation of eph' ho, see Fitzmyer, J.A. (1993), Romans, Anchor Bible. The Greek phrase is rendered variously as because all sinned (most modern translations) or in whom all sinned (Latin Vulgate tradition).

On Pelagius and the Pelagian controversy, see Rees, B.R. (1988), Pelagius: A Reluctant Heretic, Boydell Press.

On the psychological effects of shame-based religious teaching, see Tangney, J.P. and Dearing, R.L. (2002), Shame and Guilt, Guilford Press. For religious applications, see Exline, J.J. (2002), Stumbling blocks on the religious road, Psychological Inquiry, 13(3).

On the Greek word metanoia, see Liddell, H.G. and Scott, R. (1940), A Greek-English Lexicon, Oxford University Press. For its theological use in the Gospels, see Jeremias, J. (1971), New Testament Theology, SCM Press.

On John 8:1-11 (the woman caught in adultery) and its textual history, see Metzger, B.M. (1994), A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft. The passage is absent from the earliest manuscripts but has been part of the Western text tradition since the fourth century.

On the meaning of Magoi in Matthew 2, see Keener, C.S. (1999), A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Eerdmans. The term refers to Zoroastrian priestly scholars or court astrologers from Persia or Babylonia.

On the history of astrology in the ancient Near East, see Rochberg, F. (2004), The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture, Cambridge University Press.

On the Christian rejection of astrology, see Barton, T. (1994), Ancient Astrology, Routledge.

On the role of fear in religious institutions, see Hassan, S. (1988), Combating Cult Mind Control, Park Street Press.

On the psychology of magical thinking in religious contexts, see Vyse, S.A. (1997), Believing in Magic: The Psychology of Superstition, Oxford University Press.

On the suppression of alternative knowledge systems by religious institutions, see Foucault, M. (1980), Power/Knowledge, Pantheon Books.

On the relationship between curiosity and religious control, see Winell, M. (1993), Leaving the Fold: A Guide for Former Fundamentalists, New Harbinger Publications.

On the economic power of the medieval church, see Laiou, A.E. (ed.) (2002), The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, Dumbarton Oaks.

On the role of the church in medieval land ownership, see Duby, G. (1973), The Early Growth of the European Economy, Cornell University Press.

On the practice of indulgences, see Swanson, R.N. (1999), Religion and Devotion in Europe, c. 1215-c. 1515, Cambridge University Press.

On the economic motivations behind the Reformation, see Tawney, R.H. (1926), Religion and the Rise of Capitalism, Harcourt Brace.

On the relationship between religious institutions and wealth accumulation, see Stark, R. and Finke, R. (2000), Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion, University of California Press.

On the economic structure of modern megachurches, see Bowler, K. (2013), Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel, Oxford University Press.

On the concept of economic justice in Jesus's teachings, see Crossan, J.D. (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the relationship between religious belief and economic behavior, see Weber, M. (1905), The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Scribner.

On the role of temples in ancient economies, see Laiou, A.E. (ed.) (2002), The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, Dumbarton Oaks.

On the biblical tithe in the Old Testament, see Leviticus 27:30-33, Numbers 18:21-32, and Deuteronomy 14:22-29. The tithe was a tax on agricultural produce.

On the role of the tithe in early Christian communities, see Keener, C.S. (1999), A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Eerdmans.

On the development of mandatory tithing in medieval Christianity, see Swanson, R.N. (1999), Religion and Devotion in Europe, c. 1215-c. 1515, Cambridge University Press.

On the economic impact of tithing on medieval peasants, see Duby, G. (1973), The Early Growth of the European Economy, Cornell University Press.

On the relationship between tithing and church wealth, see Laiou, A.E. (ed.) (2002), The Economic History of Byzantium: From the Seventh through the Fifteenth Century, Dumbarton Oaks.

On the modern practice of tithing in evangelical churches, see Bowler, K. (2013), Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel, Oxford University Press.

On the theological justification for tithing in modern Christianity, see Copeland, K. (1997), The Laws of Prosperity, Kenneth Copeland Publications.

On the history of the Prosperity Gospel in America, see Bowler, K. (2013), Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel, Oxford University Press.

On the theological claims of the Prosperity Gospel, see Copeland, K. (1997), The Laws of Prosperity, Kenneth Copeland Publications.

On the relationship between faith and financial success in Prosperity Gospel theology, see Osteen, J. (2004), Your Best Life Now, Free Press.

On the criticism of the Prosperity Gospel by mainstream Christian scholars, see Ehrman, B.D. (2008), God's Problem: How the Bible Fails to Answer Our Most Important Question, HarperOne.

On the economic impact of the Prosperity Gospel on believers, see Pui-Lan, K. (ed.) (2004), Postcolonial Imagination and Feminist Theology, Westminster John Knox Press.

On the role of megachurches in promoting Prosperity Gospel theology, see Bowler, K. (2013), Blessed: A History of the American Prosperity Gospel, Oxford University Press.

On the biblical basis for rejecting Prosperity Gospel theology, see Crossan, J.D. (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the psychological effects of Prosperity Gospel teaching, see Exline, J.J. (2002), Stumbling blocks on the religious road, Psychological Inquiry, 13(3).

On the concept of the Red Letter Bible, see Goodspeed, E.J. (1923), The Story of the Bible, University of Chicago Press. The practice of printing Jesus's words in red began in the late 19th century.

On the historical Jesus and his teachings, see Crossan, J.D. (1991), The Historical Jesus: The Life of a Mediterranean Jewish Peasant, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the differences between Jesus's teachings and later Christian theology, see Sanders, E.P. (1985), Jesus and Judaism, Fortress Press.

On the role of the Gospels in understanding Jesus's teachings, see Keener, C.S. (1999), A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew, Eerdmans.

On the textual history of the Gospels, see Metzger, B.M. (1994), A Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament, Deutsche Bibelgesellschaft.

On the interpretation of Jesus's parables, see Snodgrass, K. (2008), Stories with Intent: A Comprehensive Guide to the Parables of Jesus, Eerdmans.

On the Kingdom of God in Jesus's teaching, see Dodd, C.H. (1935), The Parables of the Kingdom, Nisbet.

On the ethical teachings of Jesus, see Crossan, J.D. and Reed, J.L. (2004), In Search of Paul: How Jesus's Apostle Opposed Rome's Empire and Lost His Message, HarperSanFrancisco.

On the role of women in Jesus's ministry, see Johnson, E.A. (1983), She Who Is: The Mystery of God in Feminist Theological Discourse, Crossroad.